Winemaking Overview
6
Wine Styles
57-68
F White Ferm
6
Atm Champagne
French winemaking encompasses diverse techniques from delicate white wine production to complex sparkling wine methods. Understanding fermentation, maceration, and aging processes is essential for the FWS exam.
* Wine Production Categories
Dry White
Whole-cluster press, cool fermentation
Sweet Wine
Late harvest, botrytis, passerillage
Rose
Direct press, saignee, maceration
Sparkling
Methode Champenoise/Traditionelle
Red Wine
Maceration, fermentation with skins
VDN
Fortified sweet wine production
* Key French Winemaking Terms
Debourbage
Juice settling - chilling must for 12-24 hours to allow particulates to settle
Chaptalization
Adding sugar to must to boost alcohol; named for Jean-Antoine Chaptal (1756-1832)
Maceration Pelliculaire
Skin contact for white wines to boost aromatics
Batonnage
Stirring lees to increase mouthfeel and complexity
Elevage
Maturation/aging of wine before bottling
* Fermentation Types
| Type | Agent | Result |
|---|---|---|
| Alcoholic | Yeast | Sugar to alcohol + CO2 |
| Malolactic | Bacteria | Malic acid to lactic acid |
Malolactic conversion softens acidity and can add yogurt, cream, and butter notes. Usually suppressed in aromatic varieties with SO2.
Dry White Wine Production
Best practice: Whole-cluster pressing after harvest lowers particulate matter and oxygen exposure, preserving aromas and producing wines with more character.
1
Harvest & Press
Grapes are harvested and whole-cluster pressed. Gentle handling reduces oxygen exposure and preserves aromas.
2
Optional SO2 Addition
Sulfur dioxide may be added to prevent microbial spoilage, browning, and oxidation. Some wineries skip this step.
3
Debourbage (Juice Settling)
Must is chilled and settles for 12-24 hours. Large particulates settle out, preventing coarse, bitter off-flavors.
4
Adjustments
Where permitted: acidification (if lacking freshness) or chaptalization (if lacking sugar). Cannot do both to the same vat.
5
Alcoholic Fermentation
Clear must ferments in stainless steel, concrete, or oak at 57-68F/14-20C. Temperature control preserves aromatics.
6
Optional MLF & Sur Lie Aging
Malolactic conversion and aging on lees add creaminess, texture, and complexity. Batonnage stirs lees into wine.
7
Racking & SO2 Adjustment
Wine is moved off particulates. Several rackings may be needed for wine to "fall bright."
8
Blending
Components can be blended before or after aging - a proprietary decision affecting wine integration.
9
Clarification
Flotation, centrifuging, filtering, and/or fining. Sterile filtration removes bacteria but also flavor compounds.
10
Cold Stabilization
Wine is chilled to precipitate tartrate crystals before bottling, preventing formation in the marketplace.
Yeasts: Cultured vs. Wild/Indigenous▼
Cultured Yeasts
- Rapid fermentation start
- Higher alcohol attainment
- Less vulnerable to alcohol toxicity
- Function well at cool temps
- Low off-aromas/by-products
- Clean, varietally correct wines
- Less vintage variation
Wild/Indigenous Yeasts
- Successive waves of strains
- Less efficient, less predictable
- Can last months
- Extended contact = texture
- Larger vintage variations
- Complex layers of flavor
- Risk of off-odors (brett)
Each yeast strain releases specific flavor precursors and esters, creating a signature aroma profile. Some winemakers create estate-specific cultured yeasts from indigenous populations.
Common Fining Agents▼
| Fining Agent | Purpose |
|---|---|
| Bentonite (clay) | Removes protein |
| Gelatin | Removes tannin |
| Egg White | Removes tannin |
| Casein | Removes tannin |
| Carbon | Removes flavor, odor, color |
| PVPP | Removes proteins |
Fining works on the principle of positive/negative charges - opposites attract, bind, and settle out.
Sur Lie Aging & Lees▼
Gross Lees
Larger particles that settle quickly; most winemakers remove wine from gross lees shortly after fermentation
Fine Lees
Smaller particles taking longer to precipitate; many choose to age wines in contact with them
Benefits of sur lie aging: Dead yeast cells scavenge oxygen (protection), facilitate MLF, and through autolysis release mannoproteins, amino acids, and fatty acids adding bread dough/toasted nut aromatics and textural richness.
Note: Diacetyl (buttery MLF byproduct) is diminished by lees aging, making those flavors more subtle.
Sweet Wine Production
* Sweet Wine Categories
| Term | Description |
|---|---|
| Moelleux | Semi-sweet; late-harvest, may or may not be botrytized |
| Doux | Sweet; non-botrytized |
| Liquoreux | Sweet; botrytized |
| Vin Doux Naturel | Fortified sweet wine (different terminology) |
Residual sugar minimums/maximums vary by specific AOC.
* Methods for Concentrating Sugars
Late Harvest
Healthy grapes left on vine for up to 4 weeks after normal harvest date to build and concentrate sugars.
Passerillage
Twisting grape bunch stalks to stop sap flow, allowing berries to desiccate on vine. Grapes may also be dried at the winery.
Botrytis (Noble Rot)
Fungus concentrates sugars by affecting water content in grapes.
Sweet Wine Production Notes: Juice extraction is painstaking. Stems needed to help extract juice during pressing. Fermentation terminates naturally when yeasts die, leaving residual sugar. MLF is NOT encouraged - wine needs acid to balance high sugar.
Vin Doux Naturel (VDN) Production▼
VDN grapes must be harvested at minimum 14.5% potential alcohol (252 g/l sugar). Made by adding 96% neutral grape spirit (5-10% of volume) during alcoholic fermentation.
Mutage
Neutral grape spirit added to must WITHOUT solids (juice only)
Mutage sur Marc (sur grains)
Neutral grape spirit added to must WITH solids (macerating with skins/pomace)
Residual Sugar in VDNs: 4.5% to more than 12% (45-120+ g/l). Most are in 8-11% (80-110 g/l) range.
| Style | Method Options |
|---|---|
| White VDN | 3 methods: Press then mutage; brief maceration then mutage; mutage sur marc |
| Rose VDN | Direct press mutage; or maceration/saignee then mutage |
| Red VDN | Maceration + ferment then mutage; or mutage sur marc (more intense) |
Mutage sur marc for red VDNs extracts more intense flavors and tannins because alcohol aids extraction. Very concentrated wines with greater ageability.
VDN Aging Styles▼
Reductive
Aged in inert stainless steel, concrete, or topped-up oak. No oxygen contact. Fresh and fruit-driven character.
Oxidative
Aged without topping up and/or without temperature control. Nutty character, dried fruit aromas. Can lose 7%+ volume yearly.
Bonbonnes
Glass demi-johns placed outside in the sun; accelerates oxidation creating maderized character with walnut, orange zest, and toffee notes
Rose Production
There are three principal methods to make rose in France, plus variations combining techniques for both aromatics and complexity.
* Rose de Presse (Direct Press)
Traditional method for Provence's pale roses. NOT related to red wine production - meant solely for top-quality rose.
- Grapes pressed immediately after harvest
- Skin contact only during press cycle (1-4 hours)
- Ferments like white wine at 57-65F/14-18C
- Preserves grape aromas (enhanced with inert gas use)
- Few months tank aging after fermentation
* Rose de Saignee (Bleeding Method)
Results in TWO wines from one batch of grapes.
- Grapes crushed as for red wine
- Maceration 8-24 hours at 60-68F/16-20C
- Some pink juice "bled" off to ferment into rose
- Remaining juice (higher skin ratio) makes concentrated red
- Rose is deeper color, fuller body, more tannic than direct press
* Cuvaison Rapide (Rapid Soak)
Grapes crushed and brief aqueous extraction at 77-82F/25-28C before pressing. Extraction may occur in the press itself.
Variations & Regional Methods▼
- Cold maceration variation: Maceration at 46-53F/8-12C before warming to ferment, then bleeding
- Combination methods: Some varieties direct pressed, others via saignee, then blended
- Tavel method (Rose de Maceration): Entire vat bled (not just portion), skins pressed, free-run and press juice blended. Saturated color with noticeable tannins. NO red wine made.
Sparkling Wine Production
2
Fermentations
4.9-6
Atm Pressure
75-90
PSI in Bottle
Methode Champenoise (Champagne only) / Methode Traditionelle (elsewhere) involves two separate alcoholic fermentations. This differs from Methode Ancestrale (rural method) which is one fermentation with winter pause.
* Rural Method Problems (Solved by Methode Champenoise)
- No control over winter cold onset - unpredictable sugar remaining
- Sometimes fermented to dryness before cold - no bubbles
- No way to remove dead yeast from sealed bottles
- Result: cloudy, gritty wines served in colored/cut-glass to hide flaws
1
Harvest & Press
Hand harvested at 9-11.5% potential alcohol. Wide, flat press extracts clear juice from pigmented grapes quickly.
2
Juice Settling
Chilled to allow particulates to settle out of solution.
3
First Fermentation - Base Wine (Vin Clair)
Juice ferments into dry base wine. Different varieties and vineyard lots fermented separately. Most in stainless steel; few (Krug) use oak.
4
Malolactic Conversion (Optional)
Historically common to lower acid; increasingly optional with climate change.
5
Assemblage
Base wines blended to create cuvee. Cellar master maintains consistency; seasonal variation eliminated by blending reserve wines.
6
Tirage & Prise de Mousse
Yeast and sugar (liqueur de tirage) added to cuvee, then bottled. Second fermentation creates 4.9-6 atmospheres (75-90 PSI).
7
Elevage sur Lattes
Bottles sealed and stored on sides, separated by thin wood strips (lattes). Second fermentation runs 30+ days. Yeast autolysis creates brioche, biscuit aromas.
8
Remuage/Riddling
Bottles rotated in 1/8 turns to move lees to neck. Hand riddling in pupitres takes 3 months; gyropalettes take 1 week.
9
Degorgement/Disgorging
Neck frozen in icy brine, cap removed, pressure ejects ice plug with yeast. Traditional "a la volee" method: hand disgorging without freezing.
10
Liqueur de Dosage
Sugar and reserve wine mixture added to adjust sweetness. Brut Nature receives no dosage.
11
Bottle Closure
Cork inserted (compressed to half width), wire cage twisted closed, bottle shaken to integrate dosage, then rested.
Sparkling Sweetness Levels▼
| Designation | % Residual Sugar | g/l R.S. |
|---|---|---|
| Brut Nature | Zero dosage; 0-0.3% | 0-3 g/l |
| Extra Brut | 0-0.6% | 0-6 g/l |
| Brut | 0-1.2% | 0-12 g/l |
| Extra Sec (Extra Dry) | 1.2-1.7% | 12-17 g/l |
| Sec (Dry) | 1.7-3.2% | 17-32 g/l |
| Demi-Sec | 3.2-5% | 32-50 g/l |
| Doux | over 5% | Over 50 g/l |
Key French Terms - Sparkling Wine▼
Vin Clair
Base wine - still wine before second fermentation
Cuvee
The blended base wines that will undergo second fermentation
Liqueur de Tirage
Yeast and sugar mixture added to initiate second fermentation
Prise de Mousse
"Seizing of foam" - the second fermentation creating bubbles
Sur Lattes
Aging on sides, separated by thin wood strips
Pupitres
A-shaped racks for hand riddling
Gyropalettes
Mechanized riddling cages (50,000 bottles vs 6,000 manually in same time)
Transversage
Filling larger/smaller bottles from disgorged 750ml bottles
Jupone
Young "skirt/mushroom-shaped" cork (cells still sound)
Cheville
Old "peg-shaped" cork (integrity declining)
French Sparkling Wine Categories▼
| Category | Pressure | Aging Requirements |
|---|---|---|
| Champagne | ~6 atm | NV: 15 months total (12 on lees). Vintage: 3 years total (min 12 on lees) |
| Cremant | ~6 atm | Basic: 9 months on lees. Premium varies (Bourgogne Eminent: 24 mo, Grand Eminent: 36 mo) |
| Mousseux | min 3 atm | Value category; less demanding standards; most have no aging requirements |
| Petillant | 1-2.5 atm | Delicately sparkling ("fizzy") |
| Pet-Nat | <5 atm | Methode Ancestrale; partial ferment bottled; may have sediment |
Rose Champagne & Cremant Rose▼
- Rose Champagne: Most often made by adding Pinot Noir red wine to white cuvee; or via saignee
- Cremant de Bordeaux Rose: Same rules as Champagne
- Cremant d'Alsace Rose: Maceration or saignee; 100% Pinot Noir
- Cremant de Bourgogne Rose: Maceration or saignee; Pinot Noir and/or Gamay
- Cremant de Jura Rose: Maceration or saignee; min 50% red/gris grapes
* Key Historical Figures
Dom Perignon
Credited with creating blends by mixing different Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, and Meunier clusters at the press
Veuve Clicquot (Barbe-Nicole Ponsardin)
Credited with developing remuage/riddling to collect yeast in bottle neck
Red Wine Production
1
Sorting, Destemming, Crushing (All Optional)
Stems can decrease pH, slow fermentation, produce more glycerol and lower alcohol. Green stems = bitterness; brown/ripe stems = spice.
2
Cold Soak (Optional)
Pre-fermentation maceration at 36-46F/2-8C for up to 6 days. Extracts fruit aromas without tannin.
3
Alcoholic Fermentation
Ferments warm (up to 90F/32C) for 1-3 weeks. Various extraction techniques used during this phase.
* Extraction Techniques
Pigeage
Punching down cap. Mildest extraction. Used for thin-skinned varieties (Pinot Noir, Grenache).
Remontage
Pump-over. Juice pumped from bottom over cap. Less labor, higher extraction. For thick-skinned varieties (Syrah, Cabernet, Merlot).
Delestage
Rack and return. Most comprehensive extraction. Juice drained to another tank, skins fall, juice returned.
4
Liquid Separated from Solid
Free-run wine (vin de goutte) run off. Skins pressed for tannic, deeply colored press wine (vin de presse) - kept separate, added at blending if desired.
5
Malolactic Conversion
Nearly ALL red wines undergo MLF to soften acidity (unlike white/rose where it's optional).
6
Racking & Optional SO2
Wine racked off lees and stabilized. Several more rackings to clarify before bottling.
7
Blending & Aging
Can blend before or after aging. Lighter reds bottled early; complex wines may spend time in small oak barrels or larger inert casks.
8
Clarification & Stabilization
Natural cold stabilization over winter. Fining agents may be used to remove particulates, soften tannins, boost clarity.
Sur lie caution for reds: Lees absorb oxygen (needed for pigment-tannin binding) and can absorb pigment. Lees can harbor Brettanomyces and generate off-odors. Batonnage is rarely practiced; reds often racked off fine lees several times.
Micro-Oxygenation▼
Developed in 1991 by Patrick Ducournau in Madiran.
- Minute amounts of oxygen bubbled through wine
- Causes tannin molecules to bond with each other
- Tannins lose aggressive edge on palate
- Mimics time-consuming barrel aging
- Now widely practiced globally
Semi-Carbonic Maceration▼
Used in Beaujolais. Only a portion undergoes intracellular metabolism - hence "semi"-carbonic. Full carbonic requires filling tank with CO2.
1
Whole Clusters to Tank
Hand-harvested whole clusters put into tank without pressing, crushing, or destemming.
Weight causes bottom clusters to burst. Wild yeast fermentation releases CO2, creating anaerobic environment. This triggers unique enzymatic metabolism inside intact grapes:
- Malic acid converts to ethanol (~2% ABV) via enzymes
- Creates aromas of banana, hard candy, pear, raspberry, cranberry
Vatting time matters: Beaujolais Nouveau 2-3 days (explosive aromatics). Beaujolais Crus 8-15 days (deeper color, more tannin, richer flavors as grapes burst from enzymatic process).
2
Free-Run Racked; Grapes Pressed
Free-run = traditional yeast fermentation portion. Press wine = enzymatic intracellular metabolism portion.
3
Blended & Fermented
Press wine still has significant grape sugars. Traditional alcoholic fermentation without skins, with yeast. Result: light, soft, fruit-forward, low tannin.
4
MLF, Racking, Aging
Malolactic conversion after alcoholic fermentation. Aged in oak, concrete, or stainless steel. SO2 added if needed; fined and cold-stabilized.
Reductive vs. Oxidative Winemaking▼
Reductive Style
Minimal oxygen exposure. Uses stainless steel, dry ice/CO2, timely SO2, topped-up vessels. Preserves fresh fruit. Extreme = reduced wine (rotten egg, burned hair off-aromas).
Oxidative Style
Purposeful oxygen exposure at key points. Adds nutty complexity, golden/amber/tawny color, dried fruit notes. Extreme = oxidized wine (off-flavors, breakdown of aromas).
Oxidized is NOT oxidative. Oxidative = purposeful technique. Oxidized = flaw from too much oxygen.
- Syrah & Mourvedre react poorly to too little oxygen - develop sulfurous off-odors. Need some oxidative techniques.
- Grenache oxidizes quickly - needs reductive techniques to preserve aroma/flavor.
- Reduced bottled wines benefit from breathing/decanting but oxidize if left open too long.
- Oxidative-style wines have long shelf life after opening since oxidation already occurred.
* Key Terms - Red Wine
Vin de Goutte
Free-run wine - drained without pressing
Vin de Presse
Press wine - deeply colored, tannic wine from pressing skins
Anaerobic
Oxygen-free environment; triggers intracellular metabolism in carbonic maceration
Ethanol
Alcohol; in semi-carbonic maceration, ~2% created by enzymatic action (not yeast)
Exam Flags
30 key points for FWS exam review:
01 Debourbage: Juice settling for 12-24 hours; removes particulates that cause coarse, bitter off-flavors
02 Chaptalization: Adding sugar to boost alcohol; named for Jean-Antoine Chaptal (1756-1832). All sugar must ferment - does NOT sweeten wine
03 Cannot acidify and chaptalize the same vat of juice
04 White wine fermentation: 57-68F/14-20C. Temperature control = most important modern technological advance
05 Malolactic conversion: Bacteria-driven (not yeast). Converts malic to lactic acid. Suppressed in aromatics with SO2
06 Lees autolysis releases: Mannoproteins, amino acids, fatty acids - adding bread dough, toasted nut aromas and textural richness
07 Sweet wine terms: Moelleux (semi-sweet), Doux (sweet non-botrytized), Liquoreux (sweet botrytized)
08 VDN minimum: 14.5% potential alcohol (252 g/l sugar) at harvest. Fortified with 96% neutral grape spirit (5-10% of volume)
09 Mutage: Spirit added to juice only. Mutage sur marc: Spirit added while macerating with skins (more intense extraction)
10 Bonbonnes: Glass demi-johns in sun for VDN aging; creates maderized walnut, orange zest, toffee character
11 Rose de Presse: Direct press (1-4 hours contact); traditional Provence method; NOT related to red wine production
12 Rose de Saignee: 8-24 hour maceration; juice bled off; results in TWO wines (rose + concentrated red)
13 Tavel: Entire vat bled (not portion); skins pressed; called rose de maceration. No red wine made
14 Methode Champenoise: Champagne-exclusive term. Elsewhere use Methode Traditionelle. TWO separate fermentations
15 Veuve Clicquot (Barbe-Nicole Ponsardin) credited with developing riddling/remuage
16 Vin clair: Base wine. Cuvee: Blended base wines for second fermentation
17 Prise de Mousse: "Seizing of foam" - second fermentation creating 4.9-6 atmospheres (75-90 PSI)
18 Gyropalettes: Riddle 50,000 bottles in time it takes to riddle 6,000 manually; 1 week vs 3 months
19 Champagne aging: NV = 15 months total (12 on lees). Vintage = 3 years total (min 12 on lees)
20 Cremant basic: 9 months on lees minimum. Cremant de Bourgogne Eminent: 24 mo; Grand Eminent: 36 mo
21 Sparkling pressure: Champagne/Cremant ~6 atm; Mousseux min 3 atm; Petillant 1-2.5 atm
22 Pigeage: Mildest extraction (punch down); for thin-skinned Pinot Noir, Grenache
23 Remontage: Pump-over; higher extraction; for thick-skinned Syrah, Cabernet, Merlot
24 Delestage: Rack and return; most comprehensive extraction
25 Vin de goutte: Free-run wine. Vin de presse: Press wine (tannic, deeply colored)
26 Micro-oxygenation: Developed 1991 by Patrick Ducournau in Madiran. Tannin molecules bond, losing aggressive edge
27 Semi-carbonic maceration aromas: Banana, hard candy, pear, raspberry, cranberry. Malic acid converts to ~2% ethanol via enzymes
28 Beaujolais vatting: Nouveau 2-3 days (explosive aromatics); Crus 8-15 days (deeper, richer)
29 Oxidized vs. Oxidative: Oxidized = flaw. Oxidative = purposeful style (nutty, dried fruit, amber color)
30 Variety-specific: Syrah/Mourvedre need some oxygen (avoid sulfurous off-odors). Grenache oxidizes quickly (needs reductive handling)