Overview
The Vine's Resilience
- The vine can and does survive where other food crops cannot
- Clings to rock and cliff, sets deep roots
- Bears fruit in diverse soils and climates
- The vine "needs to suffer" — balance between stress and comfort produces greatness
19th Century Catastrophe
Three afflictions arrived from North America during the 1800s (likely via steamships' faster Atlantic crossing):
| Affliction | Type | Impact |
|---|---|---|
| Phylloxera | Insect | Kills vine by attacking roots |
| Powdery mildew (oidium) | Fungus | Blankets vine; reduces yields, off-flavors |
| Downy mildew (peronospera) | Fungus | Attacks leaves/stems; delays/prevents ripening |
Phylloxera, powdery mildew, and downy mildew — all from North America — decimated French vineyards in the 1800s. Steamships enabled their survival during Atlantic crossing.
The Vineyard Year
December–March
Pruning: Vines pruned when dormant to maintain size/shape. Controls productivity. Clippings removed, ground or burned; chips/ash returned to vineyard.
March
Bud Break: Buds swell and open. 3–4 weeks of shoot growth follows (accelerated by warmth, retarded by cold). Earth hilled up in fall for frost protection is removed.
May
Flowering: Occurs 6–9 weeks after bud break. Bloom lasts 8–10 days. After self-pollination → berry set (fertilized flower to grape). Grapes initially small, green, hard, high acid, low sugar.
July
Leaf-pulling, Summer Pruning, Green Harvest: Leaf-pulling exposes clusters to sun, increases airflow, mitigates disease. Shoots may be tipped to slow growth. Green harvests limit yield if needed.
August
Véraison/Ripening: Vine stops vegetative growth, puts energy into fruit. Green grapes become translucent; pigmented grapes change color. Berries soften; sugars increase, acids decrease.
August–October
Harvest: Most grapes picked 45 days after véraison. Early-ripening varieties: 8–10 weeks after flowering; late-ripening: up to 18 weeks.
October
Fertilize, Hill Up: Growing season has been 165–180 days total. Fertilize and hill up vines for winter protection.
November
Leaf Fall, Trellis Adjustments: After leaf fall, vignerons remove fasteners and lower catch wires in preparation for winter pruning.
Flowering: 6–9 weeks after bud break. Harvest: typically 45 days after véraison. Growing season: 165–180 days total.
Vineyard Challenges
Phylloxera▼
- Small insect indigenous to eastern USA
- Kills vine by attacking roots; injects saliva creating galls (uncontrolled cell growth)
- Vitis vinifera cannot heal bite wounds → bacteria/fungi enter and rot root
- North American vines largely immune; European vines are not
- Solution: Grafting European scions onto American rootstock
Impact of Phylloxera
- Pre-phylloxera: vines propagated by layering (marcottage/provignage) → haphazard vineyard layout
- Crisis allowed replanting in rows (tractor just invented; mechanization required order)
- Pre-phylloxera: multiple varieties harvested/fermented together
- Replanting allowed single-variety parcels → better maturity/ripeness management
- Opportunity to plant better clones or different varieties
- Mourvèdre took poorly to graft — took decades to find successful rootstock
Phylloxera forced replanting in rows, single-variety parcels, and grafting onto American rootstock. Mourvèdre took poorly to the graft.
Powdery Mildew (Oidium)▼
- Fungal disease blankets vine with thick white filaments
- Before flowering → reduced yields
- Cluster infection → incomplete pigment development, smaller size, off-flavors
- Treatment: Sulfur sprays
Downy Mildew (Peronospera)▼
- Germinates in warm, humid weather
- Attacks leaves and stems: first "oil spots," then white cotton filaments
- Causes leaf loss → delays or prevents ripening
- Treatment: Bordeaux Mixture (copper-sulfate application)
- Developed by Pierre-Marie-Alexis Millardet (Jura-born botanist/mycologist at University of Bordeaux)
- Millardet also pioneered the grafting technique with botanist Jules Émile Planchon
Bordeaux Mixture (copper-sulfate) developed by Millardet to combat downy mildew. He also pioneered grafting with Planchon.
Botrytis cinerea (Noble Rot / Gray Rot)▼
Noble Rot (Pourriture Noble)
- Fungus attacks tight-clustered, thin-skinned varieties
- Penetrates skin, desiccates berry, concentrates sugars and flavors
- Yields unctuous, honeyed dessert wines
- Requires: cool, moist nights/mornings followed by warm, dry afternoons
Gray Rot
- If weather stays cool/moist too long → noble rot turns to gray rot
- Results in off-flavors or partial/total crop loss
- Usually an issue with continuous wet weather before harvest
Impact on the Berry
- Total sugar: reduced by 1/3 (but concentrated due to water loss)
- Tartaric acid: reduced by 5/6
- Malic acid: reduced by 1/3
- Water content: reduced to half
- Produces gluconic acid → honeyed character
Noble rot requires cool/moist mornings + warm/dry afternoons. Produces gluconic acid (honeyed character). Water reduced to half; overall extract increases.
Coulure▼
- Poor fruit set from cloudy, cold, wet weather at flowering
- Lack of carbohydrates → stems shrivel and shed nascent berries
- Merlot and Malbec are among the most vulnerable
- Can also result from over-vigorous vines (too fertile, excessive fertilizer)
- Or overly dense canopy (more shaded leaves than sun-exposed)
Coulure: poor fruit set from cold/wet flowering weather or carbohydrate deficit. Merlot and Malbec are most vulnerable.
Other Threats▼
Asian Fruit Fly (Drosophila suzukii)
- Arrived in Europe in 2008
- Females lay eggs inside grapes; larvae feed on pulp
- Up to 13 generations can hatch per year
Grapevine Trunk Diseases (GTD)
- Most worrisome: Esca, Eutypa, Botryosphaeria dieback
- Caused by fungi; result in eventual death
- Pruning wounds = main entry point
- Esca: particular problem in Corse, Jura, Charentes
- No variety shows resistance; prevention only cure
Flavescence dorée
- Phytoplasma disease from bacteria introduced by leafhoppers
- First appeared in Gascogne in 1955; spread throughout south
- Causes yellowing, death of young vines, yield reduction
- Infected vines must be grubbed up
Pruning & Training
Purpose of Pruning & Training
- Maintain specific size and shape
- Limit yield by reducing fruiting buds
- Position fruit for ease of harvest (mechanical or manual)
- Allow air circulation to mitigate fungal diseases
- Maximize sunlight exposure for photosynthesis and pigment development
- Current year's buds develop next year's crop (cluster primordia)
Good Years Come in Twos: Current year's buds develop next year's crop. Good vintages often come in pairs (e.g., Bordeaux: 2000/2001, 2005/2006, 2009/2010, 2015/2016).
Short vs. Long Pruning
| Type | Buds Left | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Short (Spur) Pruning | 1–2 buds per spur | Gobelet, Cordon |
| Long (Cane) Pruning | 6–10+ buds per cane | Guyot |
Guyot▼
- Long, cane-pruned training method — widely used throughout France
- Trunk + one fruiting cane + one renewal spur
- Cane trained along horizontal support wire, bears 6–10+ buds
- Sometimes cane is arched vs. laid flat
- Two-bud renewal spur provides next year's fruiting cane
- Double Guyot: canes extending from both sides of trunk
Guyot: cane-pruning with 6–10+ buds. Traditional method for Syrah (weak canes, non-fruitful basal buds).
Gobelet▼
- Head-pruned / bush vines — freestanding, no trellis
- Short trunk + 3–5 short arms encircling trunk (outline of goblet)
- Each arm has 1–2 two-bud spurs
- Short spur-pruned system
- Found in warm, dry climates (southern France)
Gobelet: spur-pruning, no trellis. Traditional for Grenache (fruitful basal buds, strong upright canes).
Cordon▼
- Spur-pruning method — very common in France
- Trunk + single horizontal permanent arm (cordon) on support wire
- Cordon bears 4–8 spurs; each spur bears 2–4 buds
- Double cordon: arms extending from both sides of trunk
Éventail▼
- Éventail = "fan" in French
- 4–5 long arms (cordons) spread in fan shape along trellis
- Each arm has short two-bud spur
- Spur-pruning method — not common but has advocates
- Found in Beaujolais, Savoie, Languedoc
Vallée de la Marne▼
- Resembles double Guyot, but both canes shunted same direction
- Long cane-pruning method with two renewal spurs
- Used for Meunier in Champagne
Vallée de la Marne: like double Guyot but canes go same direction. Used for Meunier in Champagne.
Chablis▼
- Stylized spur-pruned bush vine
- Trunk hugs ground; semi-permanent arms spread in fan shape
- Terminology: rachet (renewal spur), lancement (hardened cane), charpente (older arm), prolongement (fruiting spur)
- Developed in Chablis but now predominantly used in Champagne for Chardonnay
Chablis method: developed in Chablis but now used in Champagne for Chardonnay.
Vine Spacing
| Density | Vines/ha | Conditions |
|---|---|---|
| Wide | 2,000–4,000 | Little soil moisture OR fertile sites (big vines need space) |
| Moderate | 5,000–6,000 | Moderate vigor and water availability |
| High density | 10,000 | Less fertile sites |
Variety-Specific Training
| Variety | Characteristics | Training |
|---|---|---|
| Grenache | Fruitful basal buds; strong, upright canes; wind-resistant | Gobelet (no trellis) |
| Syrah | Non-fruitful basal buds; weak canes | Tied to stakes; Guyot (6–10 buds) |
Viticultural Practices
Conventional Farming▼
- Standard since WWII; uses agrochemicals for weeds/insects/disease
- Toxicity extends beyond targets; increasingly banned/regulated
- Herbicides kill ground cover → erosion and run-off
- Soil not inert — teeming with bacteria, fungi, earthworms, etc.
- Chemical use has killed this ecosystem → diminishing organic content
- Requires increasing fertilizer; costly and unsustainable
Sustainable Viticulture (Lutte Raisonnée)▼
- "Reasoned fight" — more discriminate agrochemical use
- Spray only when necessary (vs. set schedule)
- Cover crops: minimize erosion, increase soil biomass, increase phenolics, control vigor
- Biodiversity attracts diverse insect populations → healthy equilibrium
- Pheromone traps and biological insect controls
- Organic mulches (cut cover crop left in place) → return nutrients to soil
- No official certification required
- Considered stepping-stone to organic/biodynamic
Lutte raisonnée ("reasoned fight") = sustainable viticulture. No certification required; stepping-stone to organic.
Organic Viticulture (Viticulture Biologique)▼
- Eliminates all synthetic inputs and agrochemical products
- Permitted: copper, sulfur, plant-based foliar sprays
- France began certifying in 1985 under AB France (agriculture biologique)
- EU set organic regulations in 2007 through Bioagricert
- EU logo: Eurofeuille
- French AB meets EU regulations; both logos typically seen together
Biodynamic Viticulture (Viticulture Biodynamique)▼
- Follows all organic practices PLUS cosmic rhythms
- Based on teachings of Rudolf Steiner (1861–1925), Austrian philosopher
- Practices timed to: life cycle of vine, phases of moon, movement of moon through zodiac constellations
- Preparations: yarrow, dandelion, chamomile, oak bark, nettle, valerian
- Manure preparations and compost/compost teas for soil health
- Treats vineyard as one organism whose vitality improves through cosmic rhythms
Maria Thun (1922–2012)
- German farmer who put Steiner's principles into practice in 1950s
- Discovered crops grow differently based on moon's position in zodiac:
- Earth signs (Taurus, Virgo, Capricorn): best for root crops
- Air signs (Aquarius, Libra, Gemini): best for flowering plants
- Fire signs (Sagittarius, Leo, Aries): best for fruit-bearing plants
- Water signs (Cancer, Scorpio, Pisces): best for leafy crops
- Developed annual sowing and planting calendar (1962)
Maria Thun: fire signs (Sagittarius, Leo, Aries) = best for fruit-bearing plants (grapes).
Certification Bodies
| Organization | Founded | Scope |
|---|---|---|
| Demeter | 1928 (Germany) | All biodynamic farming |
| Biodyvin | 1995 (France) | Vineyards only |
Both organizations are international. Some producers certified by both.
Certified Biodynamic Vineyards by Region (2019)
| Region | Demeter | Biodyvin |
|---|---|---|
| Alsace | 51 | 18 |
| Bordeaux | 44 | 15 |
| Bourgogne/Beaujolais | 37 | 14 |
| Champagne | 35 | 8 |
| Languedoc-Roussillon | 65 | 12 |
| Loire | 37 | 33 |
| Rhône | 47 | 24 |
Note: Don't add columns — some producers certified by both organizations.
Biodynamics in France — Key Figures
- Eugène Meyer (Alsace): First vigneron in France to adopt biodynamics (1969); converted after chemical spray accident damaged optic nerve; Demeter-certified 1980
- Nicolas Joly (Loire): Owner of Coulée de Serrant monopole; switched in 1980 after witnessing agrochemical effects; authored two books; founded Renaissance des Appellations (2001)
- Claude Bourguignon: Soil microbiologist who promoted "living soil" concept to Bourgogne's top vignerons in late 1980s
Eugène Meyer (Alsace): first French vigneron to adopt biodynamics (1969); first Demeter-certified (1980). Nicolas Joly: Coulée de Serrant; Renaissance des Appellations founder.
Fungus-Resistant Cultivars
- 1958: 30% of French vineyards planted to fungus-resistant hybrids
- Banned since 1951 due to disappointing wine quality
- Germany continued with PIWI (pilzwiderstandsfähig/fungus-resistant) hybrids
- France returned to hybridization in 1974 with Dr. Alain Bouquet (INRA)
- Developed Bouquet and ResDur hybrids — eliminate 96% of traditional agrochemical sprays
- Currently in initial roll-out phase
Dr. Alain Bouquet (INRA): developed ResDur hybrids that eliminate 96% of agrochemical sprays.
Exam Flags — Quick Review
Key facts and exam-critical information for rapid review.
01 Phylloxera, powdery mildew, downy mildew — all from North America via steamships in 1800s.
02 Phylloxera attacks roots; solution: grafting European scions onto American rootstock.
03 Mourvèdre took poorly to the graft — took decades to find successful rootstock.
04 Pre-phylloxera: marcottage/provignage (layering). Post: rows and single-variety parcels.
05 Bordeaux Mixture (copper-sulfate) developed by Millardet for downy mildew. He pioneered grafting with Planchon.
06 Powdery mildew: sulfur sprays. Downy mildew: Bordeaux Mixture (copper-sulfate).
07 Flowering: 6–9 weeks after bud break. Harvest: typically 45 days after véraison.
08 Noble rot: cool/moist mornings + warm/dry afternoons. Produces gluconic acid (honeyed).
09 Noble rot reduces water to half; tartaric acid by 5/6; malic acid by 1/3.
10 Coulure: poor fruit set from cold/wet flowering or carbohydrate deficit. Merlot and Malbec most vulnerable.
11 Esca (trunk disease): particular problem in Corse, Jura, Charentes.
12 Flavescence dorée: phytoplasma from leafhoppers; first appeared Gascogne 1955.
13 Good years come in twos: current year's buds develop next year's crop. Bordeaux examples: 2009/2010, 2015/2016.
14 Guyot: cane-pruning (6–10 buds). Gobelet: spur-pruning, no trellis. Cordon: spur-pruning with permanent arm.
15 Grenache: fruitful basal buds → gobelet. Syrah: non-fruitful basal buds → Guyot with stakes.
16 Vallée de la Marne: double Guyot with canes same direction; used for Meunier in Champagne.
17 Chablis method: developed in Chablis but now used for Chardonnay in Champagne.
18 Lutte raisonnée ("reasoned fight") = sustainable viticulture; no certification required.
19 Organic: eliminates synthetic inputs. AB France (1985); EU Eurofeuille (2007).
20 Rudolf Steiner (1861–1925): Austrian philosopher; biodynamics based on his agriculture lectures.
21 Maria Thun: fire signs (Sagittarius, Leo, Aries) best for fruit-bearing plants (grapes).
22 Demeter (1928, Germany): certifies all biodynamic. Biodyvin (1995, France): vineyards only.
23 Eugène Meyer (Alsace): first French biodynamic vigneron (1969); first Demeter-certified (1980).
24 Nicolas Joly: Coulée de Serrant; founded Renaissance des Appellations (2001).
25 Claude Bourguignon: soil microbiologist who promoted "living soil" to Bourgogne vignerons.
26 Hybrids banned since 1951 (quality concerns). In 1958, still 30% of French vineyards.
27 Dr. Alain Bouquet (INRA, 1974): ResDur hybrids eliminate 96% of agrochemical sprays.
28 High density: 10,000 vines/ha (less fertile). Wide spacing: 2,000–4,000/ha (low moisture OR fertile).
29 Growing season: 165–180 days total.
30 Organic/biodynamic easier in dry/sunny regions (Languedoc) than marginal climates (Champagne).